← All labs
Layer 20 / Evolution
From living organization to population change

Variation is inherited.
Populations change.
Adaptation has no final destination.

Evolution is a population process across generations. Inheritance can preserve variation, mutation can introduce new variants, natural selection can bias reproductive success, genetic drift can change frequencies by chance, migration can mix populations, and environmental change can reverse which variants are favored. None of these processes implies a goal, a ladder of worth, or an organism changing because it "needs" to.

inheritanceselectiongenetic driftmutationgene flowchanging environmentspopulation-level dynamics
01 INHERITAlleles combine into predictable genotype proportions under a restrictive baseline.
02 SELECTDifferent reproductive success changes allele frequencies.
03 DRIFTFinite sampling makes evolution partly stochastic.
04 MUTATENew variants enter and can settle into dynamic balance.
05 MIGRATEGene flow couples populations and can oppose divergence.
06 ADAPTWhen environments change, the direction of selection can change too.
01 / INHERIT

A stable inheritance baseline is not the same thing as no biology happening.

For a diploid population with two alleles A and a, random mating and the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions give genotype frequencies p^2, 2pq and q^2 after mating. Move the allele frequency and watch the genotype proportions follow.

AA
25%
Aa
50%
aa
25%
02 / SELECT

Natural selection changes frequencies when heritable variants leave different numbers of descendants.

Set genotype fitness values and follow one allele through generations. Here, fitness means expected reproductive contribution in this model and environment. It is not a measure of worth, intelligence, complexity, or moral value.

p(A)mean fitness
03 / DRIFT

Even with equal fitness, finite populations can change by chance.

Run repeated Wright-Fisher populations from the same starting frequency. Small populations wander more strongly, and some replicates eventually lose or fix an allele even though no allele has a selective advantage.

independent replicate populations
04 / MUTATE

Mutation supplies variation; selection and reverse mutation shape what persists.

Use a simplified haploid two-allele model. A mutates to a at rate mu, a mutates back to A at rate nu, and selection changes reproductive contribution before mutation is applied.

05 / MIGRATE

Gene flow couples populations and can resist local divergence.

Two populations experience opposite local selection but exchange migrants each generation. Increase migration and watch their allele frequencies become more tightly coupled.

population 1population 2
06 / ADAPT

Adaptation is always relative to an environment that can itself change.

Let the environment oscillate so that allele A alternates between advantage and disadvantage. The favored allele can change before the population fully catches up, creating lag, reversals and trade-offs rather than a permanent "best" type.

p(A)environmental selection signal